How Do Sociologists Define Race

Sociologists define race as a concept that is used to signify different types of human bodies. While there is no biological basis for racial classification, sociologists recognize a long history of attempts to organize groups of people based on similar skin color and physical appearance. The absence of any biological foundation makes race challenging to define and classify, and as such, sociologists view racial categories and the significance of race in society as unstable, always shifting, and intimately connected to other social forces and structures. Sociologists emphasize, though, that while race is not a concrete, fixed thing that is essential to human bodies, it is much more than simply an illusion. While it is socially constructed through human interaction and relationships between people and institutions, as a social force, race is real in its consequences. How to Understand Race Sociologists and racial theorists Howard Winant and Michael Omi provide a definition of race that situates it within social, historical, and political contexts, and that emphasizes the fundamental connection between racial categories and social conflict. In their book ​Racial Formation in the United States,  Winant and Omi explain that race is: ...an unstable and ‘decentered’ complex of social meanings constantly being transformed by political struggle,† and, that â€Å"...race is a concept which signifies and symbolizes social conflicts and interests by referring to different types of human bodies. Omi and Winant link race, and what it means, directly to political struggles between different groups of people, and to social conflicts which stem from competing group interests. To say that race is defined in large part by political struggle is to recognize how definitions of race and racial categories have shifted over time, as the political terrain has shifted. For example, within the context of the U.S., during the founding of the nation and the era of enslavement, definitions of black were premised on the belief that African and native-born slaves were dangerous brutes—wild, out of control people who needed to be controlled for their own sake, and the safety of those around them. Defining â€Å"black† in this way served the political interests of the property-owning class of white men by justifying enslavement. This ultimately served the economic benefit of slave owners and all others who profited and benefited from the slave-labor economy. In contrast, early white abolitionists in the U.S. countered this definition of blackness with one that asserted, instead, that far from animalistic savages, Black slaves were humans worthy of freedom. As sociologist Jon D. Cruz documents in his book ​Culture on the Margins, Christian abolitionists, in particular, argued that a soul was perceptible in the emotion expressed through the singing of slave songs and hymns and that this was proof of the humanity of Black slaves. They argued that this was a sign that slaves should be freed. This definition of race served as the ideological justification for the political and economic project of the northern battles against the southern war for secession. The Socio-Politics of Race in Todays World In today’s context, one can observe similar political conflicts playing out among contemporary, competing definitions of blackness. An effort by Black Harvard students to assert their belonging at the Ivy League institution via a photography project titled â€Å"I, Too, Am Harvard,† demonstrates this. In the online series of portraits, Harvard students of Black descent hold before their bodies signs bearing racist questions and assumptions that are often directed toward them, and, their responses to these. The images demonstrate how conflicts over what â€Å"Black† means play out in the Ivy League context. Some students shoot down the assumption  that all Black women know how to twerk, while others assert their ability to read and their intellectual belonging on the campus. In essence, the students  refute the notion that blackness is simply a composite of stereotypes, and in doing so, complicate the dominant, mainstream definition of â€Å"Black.† Politically speaking, contemporary stereotypical definitions of â€Å"Black† as a racial category do the ideological work of supporting the exclusion of Black students from, and marginalization within, elite higher educational spaces. This serves to preserve them as white spaces, which in turn preserves and reproduces white privilege and white control of the distribution of rights and resources within society. On the flip side, the definition of blackness presented by the photo project asserts the belonging of Black students within elite higher education institutions and asserts their right to have access to the same rights and resources that are afforded to others. This contemporary struggle to define racial categories and what they mean exemplifies Omi and Winants definition of race as unstable, ever-shifting, and politically contested.

Frederick Douglass An Unfortunate Time - 1697 Words

Frederick Douglass was born in an unfortunate time period, considering he was born a slave. He was born in a town of Maryland entitled Talbot County. What is surprising about Douglass is the fact that historians do not know the exact year and date he was born, even Frederick does not know his own birthday. Later in Douglass’s life, he was sent to a home of Hugh Auld in Baltimore. This is where the master’s wife, Sophia, taught Douglass how to read and write, which most slaves were denied this privilege. Even after Douglass’s master forced his wife to stop teaching, he continued to learn with the white children in the house. Through Douglass being educated in reading and writing, it caused him to form his own ideology about slavery.†¦show more content†¦This is important considering it caused not only slaves to rise up, but also other whites to defined slaves. Douglass was also used as propagandist for the cause of the Union and emancipation. Having an ac tual free black man as the face of the Union, in my opinion brought the emotional appeal the North needed to win the Civil War. The last factor that contributed to the Civil War was the writing and publication of his autobiology. I personally feel Frederick Douglass used his story and status to promote the Union cause, which made the South angry, considering they were already outnumber in the Congress and the House of Representatives. From my view point, Frederick Douglass just pushed the Southerns over the edge. Box B: The Dred Scott Case First let’s discuss who Dred Scott even was before talking about his case. Dred Scott was born a slave in 1795, in Southampton County, Virginia. It wasn t until after his owner died that Scott decided to fight for his freedom, as well as his family’s. Scott actually worked in two different free states after his owner passed away, which caused him to try and buy his own freedom. However, he did not succeed the first time, so he brought his case to the Missouri courts. Once his case made it to the Missouri courts, he actually won, until the decision was overturned at the Supreme Court level. Scott later died in 1858. The Dred ScottShow MoreRelatedNature And Nature Of Frederick Douglass1529 Words   |  7 Pagesbeen with Frederick Douglass even on his journey throughout his life. Nature lived amongst the other slaves as well. When being a slave at a plantation or being owned period, you become familiar with nature; if it is picking cotton, â€Å"tobacco, corn, and wheat† (Douglass 22) or if it is learning how to steer ox’s or learning how to drive a boat. Nature is with everything we do; nature is everything anyway because we are nature. We are just part of the huge spectrum of nature. Frederick Douglass was putRead MoreThe Effects Of Slavery : The Narrative Life Of Frederick Douglass915 Words   |  4 Pageslives would never escape the plantations that they were stationed in, luckily some slaves would manage to escape from time to time. One of these fortunate slaves was Frederick Douglass, a renowned advocate for freedom and equality who also exposed the mistreatment of slaves and encouraged people to join the abolitionist movement in his book The Narrative Life of Frederick Douglass. Even though slavery in America only lasted for about 245 years it completely changed the social structure of future generationsRead MoreThe Life Of A Slave Girl By Frederick Douglass And Harriet Jacobs1208 Words   |  5 PagesFrederick Douglass and Harriet Jacobs are both prominent influential authors of the Reform Era. Both writers, who spring forth from similar backgrounds and unimaginable situations, place a spotlight on the peculiar circumstances that surrounded the lives of the African American slaves. After reading and analyzing both Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, and the Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass; readers discover the horrifying truths that belong to the past in connection to slavery.Read MoreFinding Identity in the Pathway from Slavery to Literacy Essay example1103 Words   |  5 PagesYou have seen how a man was made a slave; you shall see how a slave was made a man.† -Frederick Douglass, Narrative of the Life (1845) The most shameful practices of American history is the act of slavery from the whites to the African Americans. Many African Americans were born into slavery and forced to feel inferior towards their white masters. Actual human beings were treated like animals. The inhumane condition of slavery challenged African Americans to discover their individual true identityRead MoreFrederick Douglas And Solomon Northrup Essay1499 Words   |  6 Pagesentered their plantations. However, slaves told a different story. Fredrick Douglass and Solomon Northup’s experiences show how brutal and violent slave masters acted towards their slaves. In the Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, Douglass explains how his mistress, Mrs. Audd, began to treat Douglass with care when he first met her. As time progressed, she became brutal and much more worse than her husband. When Douglass first meets his mistress he describes her as â€Å"a women of the kindest heartRead MoreAn Analysis Of Harriet Jacobs And Frederick Douglass Essay1294 Words   |  6 PagesHarriet Jacobs and Frederick Douglass both wrote narratives that detailed their lives as slaves in the antebellum era. Both of these former slaves managed to escape to the North and wanted to expose slavery for the evil thing it was. The accounts tell equally of depravity and ugliness though they are different views of the same rotten institution. Like most who managed to escape the shackles of slavery, t hese two authors share a common bond of tenacity and authenticity. Their voices are different—oneRead MoreThe Narrative Of The Life Of Frederick Douglass1129 Words   |  5 Pagesand not try to do in order to make literacy rates rise. The most important reason for the decline of literacy rates is improper education. Our country is being plagued by unacceptable academic planning. Frederick Douglass once wrote in his book The Narrative of the life of Frederick Douglass â€Å"It is easier to build strong children then to repair a broken man†. Why not build strong children to help their future. The lack of funds in education provide us with many challenges and obstacles we needRead MoreFrederick Douglass s Life Of Slavery1783 Words   |  8 Pages Frederick Douglass’s Position on Slavery Slavery is severe in two ways; slavery is terrible for slaves, and slavery corrupts slave holders. Frederick Douglass spent his life trying to prove these two topics. He wrote his own books to show people who are not around slavery how horrid it is. He gave countless examples of his own life in order to abolish slavery. In the Narrative Life of Frederick Douglass written by Douglass himself, he says, â€Å"Sincerely and earnestly hoping that this little bookRead MoreAbolitionist Literature in the Eighteenth Century559 Words   |  2 Pagesliterature further contributed to the intense feelings that people underwent as they were reading passages in these books. Individuals like Frederick Douglass and Harriet Beecher Stowe were among the most renowned abolitionist writers and their works played an essential role in emphasizing the wrongness of slavery. Frederick Douglass was among the people who were unfortunate enough to experience life as a slave. However, in comparison to other individuals who were mentally and physically rendered unableRead More The Dehumanization Process in the Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass: An American Slave2204 Words   |  9 PagesThe Dehumanization Process in the Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass: An American Slave Throughout American history, minority groups were victims of American governmental policies, and these policies made them vulnerable to barbaric and inhumane treatment at the hands of white Americans. American slavery is a telling example of a government sanctioned institution that victimized and oppressed a race of people by indoctrinating and encouraging enslavement, racism and abuse. This institution

Taxation PIC Scheme of Singapore

Question: Describe about the Taxation for PIC Scheme of Singapore. Answer: (a) The productivity and innovation credit (PIC) scheme provides for 400% deduction for income tax purposes to the tax payers carrying on business. This 400% deduction is available on the expenditure incurred on the six prescribed activities which are regarded as the qualifying activities. Further, there is a maximum cap on this allowance which restricts the maximum deduction for each qualifying activity to $400,000 per annum (IRAS, 2016). One of the six qualifying activities is the acquisition and leasing of the IT and automation equipment. Thus, the expenditure incurred by the businessmen or business entity on acquiring the IT and automation equipment is allowed for 400% deduction under PIC scheme for the income tax purposes. However, it is worthwhile to note in this regard that all the IT and automation equipments are not allowed for deduction, these are only the IT and automation equipments which are prescribed by the income tax authorities. Further, it is also provided that if a particular IT and automation equipment is not prescribed by the income tax authority, the tax payer may apply to the ministry or comptroller of income tax for approval of such equipment (IRAS, 2016). In regard to the advertisement given by Poh Choo, it has been observed that the claims made therein are not correct. The advertisement pamphlet claims that the hardware, software, and related costs incurred are eligible for 100% PIC claims, which is not true. From the provisions of PIC scheme, it is quite clear that only approved expenditure on the IT and automation equipments is allowable for deduction under PIC. The approved list of IT and automation equipments includes facsimile, optical character reader, laser printer, computers, office system software etc (IRAS, 2016). Further, the deduction is not restricted to 100%; rather it is allowable up to 400% of the expenditure incurred. (b) As per the provisions of income tax and PIC scheme, the relevant calculations for the company have been shown in the tables presented below: Tax Deduction Year-1 Year-2 Year-3 Total Adjusted profit of the business 100,000.00 100,000.00 100,000.00 Add: Expected increase @40% 40,000.00 40,000.00 A. Total 100,000.00 140,000.00 140,000.00 Qualifying expenditure for PIC Claims Cost of software and automated equipment 25,000.00 - - Website 8,000.00 - - B. Total 33,000.00 - - C. PIC claim (400%*B) 132,000.00 - - D. Income/loss (A-C) (32,000.00) 140,000.00 140,000.00 Less: Maintenance 850.00 850.00 850.00 E. Taxable income - 139,150.00 139,150.00 F. Brought forward losses set off (32,000.00) G. Net Taxable income - 107,150.00 139,150.00 H. Tax @17% (IRAS, 2016) - 18,215.50 23,655.50 41,871.00 The table presented above shows the net cash payout of the company when it opts for PIC deduction in place of cash payout plan. It could be observed that if the company opts for PIC deductions, then its net cash payout will be $41,871.00 in the form of income tax paid. However, there is an alternative available to the company in which it can opt for cash payout instead of PIC deductions. Calculations in this connection are shown in the table given below: PIC Cash Payout Year-1 Year-2 Year-3 Adjusted profit of the business 100,000.00 100,000.00 100,000.00 Add: Expected increase @40% 40,000.00 40,000.00 A. Total 100,000.00 140,000.00 140,000.00 B. Normal Deductions 33,000.00 - - C. Maintenance 850.00 850.00 850.00 D. Taxable income (A-B-C) 66,150.00 139,150.00 139,150.00 E. Tax @17% (IRAS, 2016) 11,245.50 23,655.50 23,655.50 58,556.50 F. PIC cash payout (60%*33000) 19,800.00 - - 19,800.00 G. Net cash payout (E-F) 38,756.50 In order to claim cash payout under PIC scheme, the taxpayer should have at least three local employees falling under CPF contribution provisions. In the current case, the company has three employees which fall under the CPF contribution provisions; thus, it is eligible to claim cash payout under PIC scheme (IRAS, 2016). It could be observed from the table that net cash payout of the company under this alternative is $38,756.50. The net cash payout of the company is lower in this alternative as compared to the previous one. Therefore, it is advised that the company chooses PIC cash payout plan in place of PIC deduction plan. Reference IRAS. 2016. Productivity and Innovation Credit (PIC) Scheme. [Online]. Available at: https://www.iras.gov.sg/irashome/uploadedFiles/IRASHome/Businesses/PIC%20Seminar%20for%20Medical%20Practitioner.pdf [Accessed on: 30 November 2016]. IRAS. 2016. Overview of PIC IT and Automation Equipment. [Online]. Available at: https://www.iras.gov.sg/irashome/Schemes/Businesses/Productivity-and-Innovation-Credit-Scheme/Six-Qualifying-Activities-under-PIC/Acquisition-and-Leasing-of-PIC-IT-and-Automation-Equipment/ [Accessed on: 30 November 2016]. IRAS. 2016. Corporate Tax Rates, Corporate Income Tax Rebates, Tax Exemption Schemes and SME Cash Grant. [Online]. Available at: https://www.iras.gov.sg/irashome/Businesses/Companies/Learning-the-basics-of-Corporate-Income-Tax/Corporate-Tax-Rates--Corporate-Income-Tax-Rebates--Tax-Exemption-Schemes-and-SME-Cash-Grant/ [Accessed on: 30 November 2016].